LBvii 晟維

Preface

(paragraph 2)

My intention was to write a theoretical treatise, not a textbook or a survey. I have made no attempt at exhaustive coverage of any of the many fields touched upon. For instance, in the field of physiology much outstanding work has been done on voice and speech mechanisms and on auditory perception. This material is clearly relevant to a general biology of language and certainly ought to be included in any course on this topic. I have omitted this and other similar material because it would not have added much to the main line of the argument, because it is readily available to the English-speaking reader, and because the technical detailed is difficult to follow if one does not possess prior knowledge of the subject. On the other hand, I did add some detailed discussions of modern biological experiments and theory on the assumption that the student of language is today more likely to come with a background in the social sciences than in biology, and he would, therefore, be unwilling to accept some of the claims made in this book unless they were presented together with the substrate from which they originated.

我的目的原是寫一個理論性論述，而非教科書或查證報告。我從未企圖完成接觸到的眾多領域裡任何一個領域的詳盡報導。例如，在生理學的領域裡，已有許多關於發音和言語機制與聽覺接收的傑出研究。由於這並不會對所討論的主軸多加著墨，我略去了這個部分及其他相似的資料，因為這個部分對英語讀者來說很容易取得，也因為如果讀者尚未取得進一步的相關知識，則一些技術上的細節會變得難以理解。另一方面，我附加了有關現代生物學實驗和理論的討論細節，由於我猜想現今研究語言的學生比較可能擁有社會科學的背景，而非生物學的背景，因此他們也許很難接受本書中的論說，除非他們見到這些論說起源的基礎。

腹語表演-Jeff Dunham

the mechanism may be easy to understand

but the skill takes a lifetime to develop

Stratificational Phonology

definitions form David Crystal, A Dictionary of Linguistics & Phonetics:
Stratificational grammar
A linguistic theory devised y the American linguist Sydney M. Lamb (b. 1929), as expounded initially in Outline of Stratificational Grammar (1962), which models language as a system of several related layers (or strata) of structure. Six strata are recognized for English and many other languages: the component of phonology comprises the hypophonemic (or phonetic) and phonemic strata; and semology comprises the sememic and hypersememic (or semantic) strata. Each stratum is organized in terms of a set of stratal systems, and each system deals with an aspect of linguistic structure which has to be stated independently of the structures operating at other strata. Two types of patterning are recognized: tactic analysis (the patternss of sequential arrangement within each stratum) and realizational analysis (the relationship between units operating at higher and lower levels between strata). A parallel terminology is used sememic/hypersememic’ system consisting of various structural patterns (e.g. ‘hypophonotactic/phonotactic’, etc.), defined in terms of ‘hypophonemes/phonemes’, etc., and realized as ‘hypophons/phons/morphos/lexons’,etc.

Stratificational Linguistics is a view of linguistics advocated by Sydney Lamb. His theories advocate that language usage and production is stratificational in nature.
Specifically, that there are separate 'strata' or levels in the brain used for language. Each level provides actualization or 'realization' for the next higher level, and the elements on its level are similar to each other. Several strata are involved in the production of a sound from an initial idea.
Some strata include:
Phoneme as the unit on the Phonemic strata.
Lexeme as a unit on the Lexical strata.
Morpheme as the unit on the Morphemic strata
Sememe as the unit on the Semantic strata.

(go to the page of FJU)

stratificational phonology in An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology

作者：John Clark, Colin Yallop, Janet Fletcher

stratificational phonology in A dictionary of Phonetics and Phonology

作者：Robert Lawrence Trask

土耳其文「脫落音」

土耳其文中「脫落音」現象

土耳其文中有某些單字在加上格位等其他文法標號時，其單字本身的最後一個母音會脫落。

Resim(圖畫) ＋ -im(所屬格「我的-」) → resim-im → resm-im(我的圖畫)
Metin(文章) ＋ -e(到格「根據-」) → metin-e → metn-e(根據文章)

about Kymograph

English phonetics-

vertical kymograph

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Zur Geschichte des Instituts für Psychologie

The Experimentations continue!
-The Unofficial Manipal University Blog

土耳其文中「母音諧聲」

[所屬格]
土耳其文中的所屬格（genitive），是以固定的形式直接加在名詞之後，如：

el 手 （單數）
elim 我的手 el-im
elin 你的手 el-in
eli 他的手 el-i
elimiz 我們的手 el-imiz
eliniz 你們的手 el-iniz
elleri 他們的手 el-leri


但是所屬格的母音部分，會為了達到「諧聲」而隨著單字本身變化，如：

göz 眼睛（單數）
gözüm 我的眼睛 göz-üm
gözün 你的眼睛 göz-ün
gözü 他的眼睛 göz-ü
gözümüz 我們的眼睛 göz-ümüz
gözünüz 你們的眼睛 göz-ünüz
gözleri 他們的眼睛 göz-leri


所屬格中子音的部分完全沒有改變，但是母音的部分改變了。這樣的變化總共有四種，整理如下：

單子最後一個母音為： a 或 ı 則所屬格中的母音變為：ı
單子最後一個母音為： e 或 i 則所屬格中的母音變為：i
單子最後一個母音為： o 或 u 則所屬格中的母音變為：u
單子最後一個母音為： ö 或 ü 則所屬格中的母音變為：ü


範例：
top 球 top-um top-un top-u top-umuz top-unuz top-ları
diş 牙齒 diş-im diş-in diş-i diş-imiz diş-iniz diş-leri
çay 茶 çay-ım çay-ın çay-ı çay-ımız çay-ınız çay-ları

questions and sub-questions in phonology

The outline of the hierarchy of these 16 questions. (1.2.3. for my own questions, I, II, III, thus for those in the book, and the VIII is parted, into a,b, and c, as three questions.)

Important questions of phonology

(7) How do we define the border of phonology?

(2) What is the structure of sound system?
(I) How is language and its parts, including words and morphemes, represented in the mind of the speaker; how is this representation accessed and used? How can we account for the variation in the phonetic shape of these elements as a function of context and speaking style?
(V) How can the functions of speech be enhances and amplified, for example, to give permanency to ephemeral speech, to permit communication over great distances, and to permit communication with machines using speech?

(6) What is the formation of speech sound?
(VIII b) Why is the vocal apparatus different as a function of the age and sex of the speaker?
(II) How, physically and physiologically, does speech work—the phonetic mechanisms of speech production and perception, including the structures and units it is built on?

(5) How do we acquire/learn the meaning of sounds?
(VII) How is sound associated with meaning?
(VI) How is speech acquired as a first language and as a subsequent language?
(IV) How can we ameliorate communication disorders?

(3) How language change affects phonology?
(III) How and why does pronunciation change over time, thus giving rise to different dialects and languages, and different forms of the same word or morpheme in different context? How can we account for common patterns in diverse languages, such as segment inventories and phonotactics?
(VIII a&b) How did language and speech arise or evolve in our species? What is the relation, if any, between human speech and non-human communication?

(1) What is the current methodology for phonological research?

(8) What is sign language phonology about?