LB064-066 晟維

LB064-066 晟維
Chapter 2 – Section 3

Some indications suggest that several other subcortical structures are involved in language and speech. Hartmann-v. Monakow (1965) and Hartmann-v. Monakow and Lenneberg (in preparation) have studied a series of patients with speech and language disorders resulting from surgical diencephalic lesions made in attempts to cure parkinsonism. Some of these patients suffered disorders of expression that were similar to cortically produced motor aphasias. Dr. E. M. Housepian (personal communication) has observed a pure jargon aphasia quite frequently, resulting from either pallidotomy or thalamotomy. These symptoms may last for several weeks before they clear up, although permanent sequelae have been observed in the Hartmann-v. Monakow series. One case of permanent, total language arrest has come to the author's attention through the courtesy of Dr. F. Ervin, and similar cases have also been encountered by other neurosurgeons. Van Buren (1963) has reported "aphasoid" disturbances due to stimulation in the head of the caudate nucleus. He has interpreted the symptom as an arrest of the impulse to speak. These disorders are independent from any cortical lesions, and most of them cannot be predicted on the grounds of cerebral dominance. In Housepian's opinion, some may be due to disruptions in the dorso-lateral thalamic nuclei.
有些跡象暗示了許多其他皮質下組織與語言和言語相關。Hartmann-v. Monakow (1965) 及 Hartmann-v. Monako與Lenneberg （準備中），研究了許多因藉外科手術破壞間腦來治療帕金森氏症候群而產生說話及語言障礙的病人。其中有些病人的表達障礙跟與皮質產生的運動失語症相似。Dr. E. M. Housepian (私人發表) 時常觀察到因蒼白球切開或丘腦切除而產生的單純亂語失語症。這些症狀在消除前可能會維持好幾個星期，而Hartmann-v. Monakow也觀察到永久性的後遺症。筆者也因為Dr. F. Ervin而注意到一個永久性語言完全遏止的案例，而其他神經外科醫生也發現相似的案例。Van Buren (1963) 指出 aphasoid 擾亂是由於尾核前端的刺激所致。他將這種症狀解釋為刺激說話的神經脈衝的遏止。這些障礙跟任何皮質損傷無關，大部分的障礙都無法以大腦支配的觀點來作預測。Housepian認為，有些障礙可能是因為背側丘腦核的破裂所致。

Motor speech disorders may result from either stimulation or lesion of the ventro-lateral nucleus of the thalamus (Guiot et al., 1961, and Housepian, personal communication). The most common symptom is either an acceleration or a slowing down of the rate of speech.
運動語言的障礙可因腹側丘腦核的刺激或傷害而產生(Guiot et al., 1961, 及 Housepian 私人發表)。最常見的症狀是說話速度變快或變慢。

Surgery of the thalamus and its electrophysiological exploration in man has not yet progressed far enough to give us a rounded picture of its precise role in the perception and production of language. However, the evidence is strong that speech and language are not confined to the cerebral cortex.
人類丘腦外科學及其電生理學上的探索，尚未進步到能夠全面性的描述其在語言的接收及製造所扮演的角色。但強而有力的證據指出，言語與語言並非僅限於大腦皮質。

There is one other region in the mid-brain that may also be involved in motor coordination of speech. This is the gray matter that either surrounds or is adjacent to the ventral side of the aqueduct. On the rostral end it is bounded by the floor of the third ventricle, and in its caudal extent it reached down to the level of the fourth ventricle. Apparently, lesions in this area cause dysarthria in children more easily than in adults. The disturbance is one of articulatory coordination and not paralysis, because many of the patients so afflicted have no trouble chewing and swallowing or moving the articulatory organs, but they cannot control and coordinate the muscles to make them subserve speech. It is conceivable that a congenital deformity in this region may result in developmental anarthria such as described by Lenneberg (1962). Perception of language is not involved in these cases, and none of the typical aphasic symptoms is present. Children may acquire a complete understanding of language without ever having been able to produce intelligible words.
中腦的另一個區塊也許跟語言的運動協調有關。也就是包圍或鄰近腦導水管腹側的灰質。其柱狀末端截限於第三腦室壁，而其末端延伸達第四腦室的深度。顯然，與成人相較下，這個區域的損傷更容易導致兒童的發音困難。這樣的干擾並非癱瘓，而是一種發聲協調，因為許多受到嚴重干擾的病人能毫無困難的咀嚼、吞嚥、或是移動他們的發聲器官，但他們無法控制、協調發聲肌肉來說話。可想而知，這個區塊的先天畸形可能會造成發育中的發音不能，如同Lenneberg (1962) 所描述。以上的案例並不涉及語言接收，也沒有任何典型的失語症狀。兒童可能習得了完整的語言理解力，卻無法正確的發音。

The peri-aqueductal gray matter is the anatomical locus of neuro-physiological activity which, in many mammals, regulates coordination of vocalization and facial movements. Thus, there is anatomical homology and, in a sense, physiological homology as well. But the behavioral product is species-specific in each case. Lesions may interfere with coordination for mewing in cats, barking in dogs, and speech-sound-making in man.
周邊導管灰質為神經生理上的活動的解剖部位，其為許多哺乳動物用以調節發聲及臉部活動的協調。因此，顯示了解剖學上的相似性，某方面來說，也顯示生理學上的相似性。但行為結果卻是因物種而異。此部位的損傷會干擾貓叫、狗吠、及人類發聲的協調性。

The relationship between peri-aqueductal gray matter and vocalization has been known for more than twenty years, but not much attention has been paid to it. As far as I know, the first paper on the subject is due to Bailey and Davis (1942). They placed electrolytic lesions from the aqueduct in a number of cats. If the lesions were small, wild and emotional behavior was observed, including vigorous mewing and hissing; this would last about two days and then subside or in some cases result in extraordinary quietness.
周邊導管灰質與發聲之間的關係，已被發現二十幾年了，但卻沒什麼人注意到它。就我所知，第一篇相關報告來自Bailey和Davis (1942)。他們把自導管取出的electrolytic lesions置入幾隻貓的體內。如果lesions很小，便會觀察到粗野、激動的行為，像是大聲的貓叫和嘶嘶聲；這樣的情形持續兩天後便會消失，或是像某些案例一樣最後導致異常的安靜。

These first reports were followed by further and more precise experimental work (Kelly, Beaton, and Magoun, 1946), again using cats. These author found that destruction of per-aqueductal gray matter and adjacent tegmentum beneath the superior colliculi abolished or greatly reduced facio-vocal behavior. They found upon careful examination of the subjects that the deficit was specific to vocalization; they called it pure mutism, perhaps to distinguish it from akinetic mutism, which is due to hypothalamic lesions and is primarily a syndrome of apathy and disinterest. Purring was the only sound that was preserved after peri-aqueductal lesions. More recently, Skultety (1961) reported on similar experiments on dogs with the conclusion that, in order to produce mutism in dogs through peri-aqueductal lesions, "a complete cross-sectional damage of the structure must be accomplished at a level beneath the superior colliculi."
這頭幾份的報告引導了更進一步、更精密的實驗研究(Kelly, Beaton, and Magoun, 1946)，同樣的以貓為實驗對象。學者們發現位於上腦丘之下的周邊導管灰質與鄰近的大腦腳蓋，大大減少、或破壞了臉部運動行為。對患者仔細的檢查後，他們發現這樣的破壞都只和發聲有關；也許為了和「運動不能性啞症」卻區別，他們將此稱作「純啞症」，此症因視丘下部的損傷所致，同時也是神情呆滯和漠不關心的主要症狀。在周邊導管損傷後，低鳴的呼嚕聲是唯一存留下來的聲音。近期，藉由損傷周邊導管以導致狗瘖啞等相似實驗的結論，Skultety(1961)在發表中表示：「周邊導管結構上完全的跨區域破壞，必須深達上腦丘之下。」

In the absense of experiments on man, we must base our extrapolations on clinical experience. Bailey, Buchanan, and Bucy (1939) described tumors of the lining of the upper fourth ventricle (ependy-momas), which is a relatively common neoplasm in children, to be manifested by dysarthria and oculo-motor nerve disturbance. The impact of this evidence is that the mid-brain contains a fairly narrowly circumscribed locus which is of particular importance in motor coordination of speech.
因為缺少人體實驗，我們必須憑藉臨床實驗的推斷。Bailey, Buchanan, and Bucy (1939)描述了上第四腦室內層(ependy-momas)的腫瘤（其為兒童體內相當常見的贅瘤），藉由發音不良與動眼神經障礙而顯示。這個證據所帶來的影響是，中腦中相當細小的分界環繞部分，其在言語運動協調有特別的重要性

(4) Lateralization
(4) 側化

The most dramatic difference between the human brain and that of any other vertebrate is the appearance of hemispheric dominance or language specialization. Only in man do we find a behavioral function relatively clearly localized in just one of the two hemispheres.
人腦及其他脊椎動物的腦之間，最誇張的差別就是半腦管轄與語言特化。只有人類的行為功能相當清楚地座落在其中一個半腦內。

The phenomenon of laterality affects not only language but also, as is well-known, hand preference (and to some extent also preference in the use of eye, ear, and foot). Although the lateralization of language function cannot be traced phylogenetically for obvious reasons, that of limb-preference could be, at least theoretically. In apes and monkeys and even in some carnivores, it is common that an individual prefers one side of his extremities for a given behavior, but the distribution between right and left preference throughout the species appears to be random. Nor have cortical correlates been discovered for these individual preferences. It has been said of apes, for instance, that either of their hemispheres seems to function like man's right hemisphere; that is, the deficits that result from experimental lesions on either side of a monkey's brain bear similarities to the clinical deficits observed in man following right-hemispheric lesions.
側化的現象不僅影響了語言，還有眾所周知的慣用手（還有其他延伸的部位，如慣用眼、慣用耳、慣用腳等）。雖然語言的側化不像肢體的側化一樣可以系統化地回溯到某些明確的原因，但至少我們可以假設。猩猩、猴子、甚至是某些食肉動物，因特定行為而使用慣用邊的肢體是很常見的，但是以整個物種來看，慣用邊的左右的分佈卻顯得很隨機。也未發現能解釋個體的慣用偏好的皮質相關作用。有人提出（舉例來說）猩猩的左右腦都只有人類右腦的功能，也就是說，在猴子任何一邊的腦用實驗性損傷所造成的功能障礙，和從遭受右腦損傷的人所觀察到的臨床障礙相似。

In man, there are even asymmetries of a strictly structural nature, recently reviewed by v. Bonin (1962). They are not very marked and are revealed only through statistics, and their relevance to the asymmetry in function is entirely unknown. The individual measurements need not concern us, but the left hemisphere on almost all quantitative counts yields higher values than the right one.
在人體，甚至還有嚴格結構本質的不對稱，如v. Bonin (1962)近期的回顧。這些不對稱並不特定，只有透過統計才能察覺，而它們與功能中的不對稱性是否相關，也尚未查證。我們不需擔心個體的測量，但是左腦在各種量質的計算顯示了比右腦更高的重要性。

We have said that normally all parts of the brain interact. If language is primarily localized in the left hemisphere, we might ask what the role of the right hemisphere is with regard to speech and language. Even in the adult individual, where localization is more pronounced than in infancy, the right hemisphere may have some, though lesser, functions in language. Macdonald Critchley (1962) suggests that lesions in the right hemisphere may be followed by any one or more of the following deficits: difficulty with articulation, impairment of creative literary work, hesitations, difficulty in finding words, and difficulty in learning new linguistic material. The common denominator of these symptoms might be called verbal aspects of generally lowered intellectual efficiency. At any rate, there seem to be some language functions that are "reserved" to the right hemisphere.
我們已經討論過，通常大腦的每個部分都會交互作用。如果語言主要存在左腦，我們也許會問，關於語言和言語右腦又扮演了什麼樣的角色？甚至，成年人語言的局部化比在嬰兒期更明顯，右腦也許也有一些（儘管不多）語言功能。Macdonald Critchley (1962)提出，右腦的損傷可能會導致以下幾種障礙：發音困難、文學作品創作障礙、尋找詞彙的困難、學習新語材的困難。這些症狀的普遍起源也許可以稱作是常態降低智力效能的口語面向。無論如何，似乎某些語言功能「儲備」在右腦裡。

(Vocabulary)
subcortical《形》 皮質下的.
subcortical alexia 皮質下性失讀症,(大腦鉤回與視神經中樞間之連接受阻所致).

Diencephalic
diencephalon【解】間腦

parkinsonism 帕金森氏症候群
Parkinson’s disease 帕金森氏症：由於大腦核變性之進行性運動病患

motor aphasia 運動性失語症,(對文字語言不能表達)

jargon aphasia 亂語失語症,(像說夢話),(同gibberish aphasia).

pallidotomy《名》 蒼白球切開.

Thalamotomy《名》 丘腦切除.

Sequelae 後遺症,pl.sequelae[~ ](L.).

arrest《名》 停止;遏止

caudate necleus 尾核,(與側腦室有關,弧形灰色).
caudate《名》 (腦)尾核,(同caudatum).《形》 有尾的.
necleus《名》 1.核.2.細胞核.3.神經核(在中樞神經由很多神經細胞組成),pl.nuclei

disruption《名》 破裂,暴裂的狀況

dorso-lateral
dorso- 表示"背"

thalamic【解】丘腦的]
thalamic epilepsy視丘性癲癇,(由視丘疾病所致).
thalamic radiation丘腦紋線,(其纖維連接於丘腦與皮質,沿內膜而行又可分成四股,前,上,後,及下四種放射).

ventro-lateral
ventro- 表示"腹";"腹部"

electrophysiological《名》 電生理學

midbrain《名》 中腦,(同mesencephalon,由原腦囊之中間囊而來).

ventral《形》 1.腹的.2.腹面的

aqueduct《名》 導水管,導管
cerebral aqueduct腦導水管,(在中腦,連接第三與四腦室).

rostral 【建】(柱子等)有喙形艦首裝飾的 【動】有嘴的;有喙的

ventricle 《名》 室,(腦或心).

Caudal《形》 尾部的.

Dysarthria《名》 發音不良,發音困難,(由神經肌肉障礙所致).

Subserve 有利於 / 對...有幫助

congenital deformity
congenital《形》 先天性的,天生的,(與acquired相反).
Deformity《名》 變形;畸形.

Anarthria《名》 發音不能,(由發音關節障礙引起).

peri-aqueductal

electrolytic 《形》 電解的.

tegmentum《名》 1.蓋.2.大腦腳蓋,pl.tegmenta

colliculi
colliculus《名》 阜,丘,(一種小隆起,解剖名),pl. colliculi[~ ],(L.),[NA].

facio-vocal
facio- 表示「面」

pure mutism
mutism《名》 1.啞.2.緘默,(狀態).

akinetic mutism運動不能性啞症,(發音困難).

hypothalamic《形》 視丘下部的.

Apathy《名》 神情呆滯

extrapolations 推斷 / 【統】外推(法)

ependy-momas
ependyma《名》 室管膜,(腦室與脊椎神經中央管之內膜)

neoplasm《名》 新生質;贅瘤;贅生物;瘤腫.

oculo-motor
ocul(o)- 表示「眼」之字首

Circumscribed《形》 局限的,環繞分界的,被環繞為界的

Vertebrate《名》 脊椎動物.《形》 有椎柱的.

phylogenetically
phylogenetic 系統發生的 / 動植物種類史的

carnivore《名》 食肉動物

extremity《名》 1.遠端.2.上肢,下肢.3.手,足.

Diogenes of Oinoanda

Diogenes of Oinoanda

Diogenes of Oenoanda (or Oinoanda) was an Epicurean Greek from the 2nd century AD who carved a summary of the philosophy of Epicurus onto a portico wall in the ancient city of Oenoanda in Lycia (modern day southwest Turkey). The surviving fragments of the wall, which originally extended about 80 meters, form an important source of Epicurean philosophy.

Diogenes (ca. 400-ca. 325 B.C.), a Greek philosopher, was the most famous exponent of Cynicism, which called for a closer imitation of nature, the repudiation of most human conventions, and complete independence of mind and spirit

Strabo

Strabo
Strabo (Greek: Στράβων; 63/64 BC – ca. AD 24) was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher.

Strabo, who was born at Amaseia (now Amasya in Turkey), traveled to Rome in 44 BC and remained there until about 31 BC. He visited Corinth in 29 BC and in about 24 BC sailed up the Nile.

Although the historical writings of Strabo, including his Historical Sketches, in 47 books, have been almost entirely lost, his Geography, in 17 books, has survived virtually intact. This major geographical work is an important source of information on the ancient world. In it Strabo accepted the traditional description of the Earth as divided into five zones with the oikoumene, or inhabited part, represented as a parallelogram spread over eight lines of latitude and seven meridians of longitude. Where he excelled, however, was in the field of historical and cultural geography and he gave a detailed account of the history and culture of the lands and people of the Roman Empire and of such areas as India, which lay beyond the dominion of Augustus. In this he quoted much from the earlier Greeks, including Eratosthenes, and Artemidorus.

Strabo, not content merely to describe the lands of the civilized world, also wished to understand its enormous diversity. He rejected the simple climatic determinism that he attributed to the Stoic Poseidonius, arguing in its place for the role of institutions and education. Despite the value of this work Strabo seemed to exercise little influence until Byzantine times.

Gaius Plinius Secundu

Gaius Plinius Secundu
Born: 23 A.D.
Birthplace: Como, Italy
Died: 24 August 79 A.D. (Got too close to an erupting volcano)
Best Known As: The author of Natural History

Gaius Plinius Secundas (Pliny the Elder) was a Roman official and military officer who also wrote as a naturalist, biographer and historian. He is most known for his only extant work, a 37-volume Natural History that served as the basis for scientific knowledge for centuries. Pliny wrote in Latin, using mostly Greek sources and his own observations (and vivid imagination). In 79 A.D., when Mt. Vesuvius erupted, Pliny was a naval commander at the Bay of Naples. While attempting to get closer to the volcano and possibly effect a rescue, Pliny was overcome with fumes and died.

His nephew Pliny the Younger also was a writer and historian, as well as a Roman senator.
Gaius Plinius Secundus was a famous Roman scientific encyclopedist and historian. He surveyed all the known sciences of his day, astronomy, meteorology, geography, mineralogy, zoology, and botany. Most of his works are lost, but his book Historia naturalis (Natural History) still exists. No single work of Pliny still exists, but many of them were copied, complete or in excerpts, multiple times. So today numerous copies of many of his works exist, which gives some security that they are authentic.

Plinius was born in Como, studied in Rome and then became soldier, which was a typical career for a Roman aristocrat. He became a cavalry commander in Gallia (France) and Germania (Germany) and a friend of Vespasian. During the reign of Nero he was in foreign countries, which kept him out of harm's way. After Nero died, his friend Vespasian was made emperor in AD 69. So he returned to Rome and took up various public offices.

Cicero

Cicero
Born: 6 January 106 B.C.
Birthplace: Arpinum (now Arpino, Italy)
Died: 7 December 43 B.C. (assassination)
Best Known As: Roman statesman who stood up to Marc Antony
Name at birth: Marcus Tullius Cicero

Cicero was the greatest speaker among the many famous statesmen of ancient Rome. He practiced law and studied philosophy in Greece before holding a rising sequence of important jobs in the Roman Empire. In 64 BCE he became Consul, the highest office in Rome. As Consul he won fame for his orations against Cataline, the head of a secret conspiracy to seize the government. Always a staunch supporter of the Republic, Cicero was eventually forced from office by his enemies, and when Julius Caesar consolidated his power in 48 BC, Cicero went into political retirement. During this time he wrote his famous essays on happiness, on old age, and on friendship. Upon Caesar's assassination in 44 BCE, Cicero returned to public life and delivered a series of scathing speeches (the "Phillipics") against Marc Antony. This proved to be Cicero's undoing: when Antony took power in a triumvirate with Octavian and Marcus Lepidus, Cicero was declared an outlaw and killed by Antony's men in 43 BCE.

After Cicero's death, his head and right hand were taken to Antony, who had them placed on public view on the rostrum where Cicero had made many of his famous speeches.

Caesar

Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar (ca. 140 BC–85 BC) was a Roman senator, supporter and brother-in-law of Gaius Marius, and father of Julius Caesar, the later dictator of Rome.

Caesar was married to Aurelia Cotta, a member the of Aurelii and Rutilii families, and had two daughters, both named Julia, and a son, Julius Caesar, born in 100 BC.[1] He was the brother of Sextus Julius Caesar, consul in 91 BC[2] and thus the son of Gaius Julius Caesar.

Epicurus

Epicurus (Greek: Έπίκουρος, Epikouros, "upon youth"; Samos, 341 BC – Athens, 270 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher and the founder of the school of philosophy called Epicureanism. Only a few fragments and letters remain of Epicurus's 300 written works. Much of what we know about Epicurean philosophy derives from later followers and commentators.

For Epicurus, the purpose of philosophy was to attain the happy, tranquil life, characterized by aponia, the absence of pain and fear, and by living a self-sufficient life surrounded by friends. He taught that pleasure and pain are the measures of what is good and bad, that death is the end of the body and the soul and should therefore not be feared, that the gods do not reward or punish humans, that the universe is infinite and eternal, and that events in the world are ultimately based on the motions and interactions of atoms moving in empty space

Lucretius

Lucretius

Titus Lucretius Carus (ca. 99 BC- ca. 55 BC) was a Roman poet and philosopher. His only known work is the epic philosophical poem on Epicureanism De Rerum Natura, On the Nature of Things.

Very little is known about Lucretius's life. One source of information is St. Jerome, writing 400 years after Lucretius's death and with a possible desire to discredit him. He mentions Lucretius in the Chronica Eusebii. Here we find the following notice: "Titus Lucretius the poet is born. Later he was driven mad by a love potion, and when, during the intervals of his insanity, he had written a number of books, which were later emended by Cicero, he killed himself by his own hand in the 44th year of his life." In most manuscripts this notice is entered under the year 94 BC, but in others under 93 or 96. This gives us the following alternative dates for Lucretius's life and death: 96-53/52, 94-51/50, and 93-50/49.

Marcus Terentius Varro

Marcus Terentius Varro

Marcus Terentius Varro (116 BC – 27 BC), also known as Varro Reatinus to distinguish him from his younger contemporary Varro Atacinus, was a Roman scholar and writer.He studied under the Roman philologist Lucius Aelius Stilo, and later at Athens under the Academic philosopher Antiochus of Ascalon.

Steinthal

Steinthal

Heymann or Hermann Steinthal (born at Gröbzig, Anhalt, May 16, 1823; died at Berlin March 14, 1899) was a German philologist and philosopher.

He studied philology and philosophy at the University of Berlin, and was in 1850 appointed privat-dozent of philology and mythology at that institution. He was a pupil of Wilhelm von Humboldt, whose Sprachwissenschaftliche Werke he edited in 1884. From 1852 to 1855 Steinthal resided in Paris, where he devoted himself to the study of Chinese, and in 1863 he was appointed assistant professor at the Berlin University; from 1872 he was also privat-dozent in critical history of the Old Testament and in religious philosophy at the Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judenthums. In 1860 he founded, together with his brother-in-law Moritz Lazarus, the Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft, in which was established the new science of racial psychology. Steinthal was one of the directors (from 1883) of the Deutsch-Israelitische Gemeindebund, and had charge of the department of religious instruction in various small congregations.

Democritus

Democritus

Democritus (Greek: Δημόκριτος, Dēmokritos, "chosen of the people", aka The Laughing Philosopher) was a pre-Socratic Greek materialist philosopher (born at Abdera in Thrace ca. 460 BC - died ca 370 BC). Democritus was a student of Leucippus and co-originator of the belief that all matter is made up of various imperishable, indivisible elements which he called atoma (sg. atomon) or "indivisible units", from which we get the English word atom. It is virtually impossible to tell which of these ideas were unique to Democritus and which are attributable to Leucippus.

Krates

Krates
Crates, of Mallus in Cilicia (modern day Southeastern Anatolia Region, Turkey), was a Greek language grammarian and Stoic philosopher of the 2nd century BC, leader of the literary school and head of the library of Pergamum. His chief work was a critical and exegetical commentary on Homer. He is also famous for constructing the earliest known globe of the Earth.

He was born at Mallus in Cilicia, and was brought up at Tarsus, and then moved to Pergamon, and there lived under the patronage of Eumenes II, and Attalus II. He was the founder of the Pergamon school of grammar, and seems to have been at one time the head of the library of Pergamon.

He visited Rome as ambassador of either Eumenes, in 168 BC, or Attalus in 159 BC. Having broken his leg and been compelled to stay there for some time, he delivered lectures which gave the first impulse to the study of grammar and criticism among the Romans.

Aristarch

Aristarch

Aristarchus or Aristarch of Samothrace (Άρίσταρχος, 220?–143 BC?) was a grammarian noted as the most influential of all scholars of Homeric poetry. He was the librarian of the library of Alexandria and seems to have succeeded his teacher Aristophanes of Byzantium in that role.

He established the most historically important critical edition of the Homeric poems, and he is said to have applied his teacher's accent system to it, pointing the texts with a careful eye for metrical correctness. It is likely that he, or more probably, another predecessor at Alexandria, Zenodotus, was responsible for the division of the Iliad and Odyssey into twenty-four books each. According to the Suda, Aristarchus wrote 800 treatises (ὑπομνήματα) on various topics, all lost but for fragments preserved in the various scholia.

Accounts of his death vary, though they agree that it was during the persecutions of Ptolemy VIII of Egypt. One account has him, having contracted an incurable dropsy, starving himself to death while in exile on Cyprus.

The historical connection of his name to literary criticism has created the term aristarch for someone who is a judgmental critic.

Homer

Appendix447-448
(names searching)

荷馬（'`Oμηρος，約前9世紀─前8世紀），相傳為古希臘的遊吟詩人，生於小亞細亞，失明，創作了史詩《伊利亞特》和《奧德賽》，兩者統稱《荷馬史詩》。 沒有確切證據證明荷馬的存在，所以也有人認為他是傳說中被構造出來的人物。而關於《荷馬史詩》，大多數學者認為是當時經過幾個世紀口頭流傳的詩作的結晶。

荷馬時期（西元前12世紀——西元前8世紀）
　　荷馬時期是根據荷馬史詩的作者名字來命名的，也就是氏族社會末期。荷馬時期為希臘神話的形成期，也是造型藝術的萌芽期。荷馬時期最早的造型藝術作品是幾何風格的陶瓶，造型簡樸，大小不一，多用於敬神和陪葬。即使是雕刻作品，也多為幾何形的，沒有細節刻畫。因此，這一時期又被稱為“幾何風格時期”。 這時，希臘半島的人民繼承和發展了原始人積累的習俗及對世界的想像，他們的文化遠不及深受古埃及和兩河流域影響的海島上的愛琴文化成熟。盲人詩人荷馬把幾百年以至上千年來廣泛流傳的民間傳說、歌謠、關於對天地起源、歷史未來、人生嚮往等神話整理出兩部不朽的文藝作品，也就是這兩部作品為後來希臘美術的發展方向奠定了基調，成了希臘美術取之不盡的素材和源泉。

LB092-094 晟維

LB91-94 晟維
(Chapter 3, Section 3)

We cannot state exactly the number of muscles that are necessary for speech and that are active during speech. But if we consider that ordinarily the muscles of the thoracic and abdominal walls, the neck and face, the larynx, pharynx, and the oral cavity are all properly coordinated during the act of speaking, it becomes obvious that over 100 muscles must be controlled centrally. Since the passage from any one speech sound to another depends ultimately on differences in muscular adjustments, fourteen times per second an "order must be issued to every muscle," whether to contract, relax, or maintain its tonus. From Fig. 3.6 it is clear, however, that the readjustment does not occur simultaneously for all muscles but that various groups of muscles have characteristic timing; some are active shortly before the acoustic onset of a phoneme, some during, and some shortly after. Thus we gather that the rate at which individual muscular events occur (throughout the speech apparatus) is of an order of magnitude of several hundred events every second. It is evident that the activation of so many muscles in such a short time span cannot depend on volition alone. There must be some automatisms—whole trains of events that are "preprogrammed" and run off automatically. Automatic sequences such as these are called synergisms; they form the basis of all motor phenomena in vertebrates. The physiology of speech production would be very simple if every phoneme were associated with one and only one pattern of muscular interaction. However, this is not what we find. The muscular activity associated with one phoneme is influenced by the phonemes that precede and follow it. Thus the motor patterns that we must investigate here are complex motor configurations that extend over relatively long periods, as in the duration of a syllable or word.

我們無法精準地將說話所需要的肌肉及說話時所用到的肌肉一一地列舉出來。但如果我們把胸壁及腹壁上普遍的肌肉都考慮進來，還有頸部和臉部、咽、喉及口腔等在說話時能精確地相互合作的肌肉，很明顯地，有超過一百條肌肉必須受到中央控制。因為任何一段語音基本上都依靠肌肉不同的調節，每秒有十四次的「指令必須傳達至每條肌肉」，不論是要收縮、放鬆或維持緊張度。從圖3.6可以清楚看到，儘管每條肌肉的調節並非同時發生，而是不同的肌肉群所特有的時間控制，有些肌肉在一個音素的聽覺開端前一段短時間就開始動作，有些同時，有些則在一段短時間之後。 因此我們推想所有發聲器官裡每一個獨立肌肉事件的發生，就如同每一秒內有好幾百個重要事件的命令。很明顯的，要讓如此大量的肌肉在這麼短的時間內啟動，並不能只依靠意志。一定有某些自動現象存在：一連串「預先程序化」的事件自動自發的進行著。這樣自動化的順序稱為連合作用；此作用形成脊椎動物動作現象的基礎。如果每一個語音音素只跟一個肌肉相互作用模式有關，那麼言語產生的生理學就再簡單不過了。但是，這並不是我們所尋求的。一個音素所涉及的肌肉活動會受到該音素的前一個及後一個音素影響。我們在這裡必須探討的動作模式是複雜動作型態，其可擴展至相當長的一個時段，如一個音節或一個詞彙的長度。

The intricacy of the problem becomes apparent if we draw an analogy between the sequence of events during speech and in drumming with the fingers on a table top. Both proceed at a rapid rate, but when we drum out a melody with our fingers, it does not matter in which order each finger falls on the table. The easiest is to use a single order, letting the small finger always be the first and the index always the last. But in speech production the order of activation and precise timing is of paramount importance.
這個問題的複雜性可藉由「說話中事件發生的順序」與「用手指敲擊桌面」兩件事的比擬，而變得顯而易懂。這兩件事都以高速進行，但是當我們用手指敲擊桌面的時候，手指敲擊的順序並不重要。最簡單的方式是：從小指到食指依序敲擊。但是在言語產生的過程中，動作的順序及精確的時間點便有最高的重要性。

(3) Ordering of Articulatory Events
(3) 發聲事件的順序

The problem of order in speech and language is not confined to articulation. We can speak of an order of events at the level of perception of acoustic phenomena, of articulation, and of nerve impulses. The perceptual order of speech sounds need not be identical with the order of acoustic correlates (we may ignore or fail to hear certain acoustic phenomena); the order of acoustic events need not be identical with the order of motor or articulatory events (movements occur that do not produce sound or sound-changes); the order of central neuronal events may be different from the order of peripheral motor events. (Certain nervous impulses must be initiated in advance of others because traveling time to the periphery is longer for some pathways than others.)

言語及語言順序的問題並不侷限於發聲過程。我們可以談論接收聲學現象的事件順序、發聲的事件順序及神經脈衝的事件順序。言語的接收順序似乎不必與聲學相關的順序一致（我們可能忽略或聽不到某種聽覺現象）；而聽覺事件的順序也不必與發聲事件的動作順序一致（動作的發生並不會產生聲音或改變聲音）；而中央神經事件的順序，可能也和半腦動作的事件順序不同。（特定的神經脈衝必須先於其他的神經脈衝，因為半腦的巡迴時間對某些途徑來說比其他的更長。）

Figure 3.7 shows the spectrogram of a male speaker saying the words "Santa Claus." No matter how carefully or how often we listen to these tape-recorded words played back at the original speed, we always hear a clear-cut sequence of phones, one beginning at the termination of the previous one. However, the graphic representation demonstrates that, acoustically, phones overlap. The initial portion of a vowel may bear the acoustic clues of the stop-consonant preceding it; the last portion of the lateral /l/ may have the vowel coloring of the next sound; or, in general, vowels and consonants influence each other acoustically (Delattre et al., 1955; Stevens and House, 1963). Thus the onset of a phone is different when defined acoustically than perceptually, with the acoustic onset often preceding the perceptual one.

圖3.7為一名男子說「Santa Claus」的聲譜圖。無論多小心的重複聆聽以原速播放的錄音，我們總能聽到清楚的語音順序，後一個的開頭接著前一個的結尾。然而，圖3.7卻顯示語音有聲學上的重疊。在母音開頭的部分，帶有前一個塞音的聲學跡象；而/l/最後的部分則受到下一個音的母音影響；或者，一般而言，母音和子音在聲學上互相影響（Delattre et al.,1955; Stevens and House, 1963）。所以，一個語音的開頭在聲學及聽覺上有所不同，而聲學所定義的開頭總在聽學之前。

There are many articulatory events, or more generally, motor events, that leave no trace on spectrograms. Figure 3.6 based on work by Stetson show this very clearly. Before the onset of phonation, muscles in the abdominal and thoracic wall and in the larynx have to assume certain positions, with some of these events preceding the onset of sound by 100 milliseconds (msec) and more. Also during those silent periods which appear as short blanks on spectrograms a great many movements are performed, particularly by the tongue, which must get into position for alveolar or palatal stops (d, t, g, k) or which gets ready for the production of the next vowel.
有許多的發聲事件（或更廣義的說，動作事件）並不會在光譜圖上留下遺跡。圖3.6依據Stetson的研究顯示了這樣的現象。早在發音的開頭之前，腹壁、胸壁及咽喉的肌肉必須擔任特定的職位，而某些發聲事件在聲音的開端前100多毫秒（甚至更長）之前就開始了。同時在無聲的期間（也就是聲譜圖上空白的部分），許多動作已經開始，尤其是舌頭的動作，因為在發出齦顎塞音、軟顎塞音及下一個母音的發音前，就必須在發聲位置上。

(FIG 3.6)
FIG. 3.6 Earlier observations on the relationship and timing of certain muscular activities and sound production.(After Stetson, 1951.)

圖3.6 有關特定肌肉的活動及語音的產生之間的關係及時間點的較早的觀察。.(根據 Stetson, 1951.)
(FIG 3.7)
FIG. 3.7 Perceptually, speech sounds seem to follow one another like a train of independent speech segments. Acoustically, however, there is considerable overlap. (a) Spectrogram of the words Santa Claus. Vertical lines mark acoustically differentiated segments. (b) Assignment of phonemes to acoustic segments.(From Fant and Lindblom, 1961.)
圖3.7 從感知方面來看，語音似乎像是獨立語段一長串的連結。然而，從聲學角度來看，語音之間存在著相當大部分的重疊。(a)「Santa Claus」的聲譜圖。重直線標示出聲學上相異的語段。 (b)音素在聲學上分段的配置。(節自Fant 及 Lindblom, 1961.)




(Vocabulary Searching)
thoracic 【解】胸的、胸廓的
abdominal 【解】腹的、腹部的
tonus 【生】緊張度
magnitude 巨大,廣大[U] / 重大,重要[U] / 量;大小;強度;音量[U] /【天】星等(指星的亮度)[C] /【地】震級[C]
volition 意志;決斷力 / 選擇;決定

synergism【醫】(各種藥物的)連合作用 /【宗】神人協力合作說

configuration結構;表面配置 /【心】形態 /【天】行星的方位;(地球表面的)外貌

LB447-448 晟維

The study of language entered a new phase in the second century B.C. By this time the Greek language had changed so much that the old texts of Homeric times were no longer readily understandable. The task of their interpretation fell to the so-called critics or grammarians who had to evaluate and judge the beauty of the old manuscripts. Formal grammar owes its beginnings and development to their efforts in the succeeding two-hundred years [17].4

在西元前二世紀，語言的研究進入了嶄新的一頁。這個時期的希臘語已改變甚多，連荷馬時期的古老文獻都無法輕易的瞭解。而翻譯的任務便落到了所謂的評論家及文法家身上了，他們得鑑定及評論古老文獻手稿之美。由於他們在接下來兩百年的努力，使得形式語法開始萌芽發展[17]。

One group among the grammarians represented by the greatest Alexandrine philologist, Aristarch (220-142 B.C.) and his school, was convinced that the meaning or origin of many old words could be derived by postulating that they had been modified or declined similarly to words with which they were familiar. They therefore contended that language was ruled by analogy. This principle was supposed to rule nature (physis) and permit the establishment of natural laws. But because language had not yet acquired any degree of standardization, the claims of the analogists were not as solidly based as we might be led to suppose [18].

文法家中其中一個團體，亞歷山大的哲學家Aristarch及其學派，相信能夠藉由假設他們已經將熟悉的字詞作相似的修飾及變格，推演出許多古老字彙的意義及根源。因此他們聲稱語言受到類比的規範。這個原則應該可以規範自然(physis)並允許自然法則的建立。但是因為語言尚未獲得任何程度的標準性，類比學家的主張並非如同我們被引導假設的那樣牢固可靠。

The analogists’ view was opposed by Krates, a philologist and grammarian, (came to Rome in 169 B.C.) and his school, who saw no lawfulness in language and, therefore, proclaimed its pervasion by anomaly (nomos). Anomaly was thought to be characteristic for everything made by man (nomos or thesis) [19]. Anomaly in language seemed to be confirmed by the observations which had already been made by Democritus (460-352 B.C.), that more than one name could apply to the same thing, that proper names could be changed and that analogy was frequently lacking. The standpoint of the anomalists was, in Steinthal’s opinion, the more solidly based in view of the paucity of grammatical rules. Yet at that time the argument could be used that language must be physis for otherwise neither blessing nor curse could have an effect [20].5 But neither the principle of analogy or of anomaly could provide, by itself, the basis for the establishment of a formal grammar which, of necessity, would have to be based on rules but would have to make allowances for exceptions as well.

類比學家的觀點遭到哲學家同時也是文法家的Krates(西元前169年來到羅馬)及其學派反對，他認為語言中沒有法則，因此也表示不規則(nomos)的普遍性。不規則性被認為是人類所創造事物的特點(nomos或thesis) [19]。語言中的不規則性可說是由Democritus(西元前460-352年)所做的觀察而得到證實，例如不同名稱可使用在同一個事物上、專有名詞可以被改變，以及類比的情形並不常見等現象。依Steintahl來看，不規則學家的立場則是較確實地建立在語法規則缺乏的觀點上。此外，在當時的年代可提出語言必須是physis，否則無論是祝福還是詛咒都無法帶來影響 [20]。但是類比原則和不規則原則都無法單獨證明，形式語法建立的根基，必然需要根據規則同時也要准許例外的存在。

The establishment of a formal grammar became a pressing need in Roman times. Unlike their Greek predecessors, who had become preoccupied with language studies in their attempt to understand the classics, Roman men of letters required rules in order to write a Latin literature. Moreover, the standardization of Latin usage was of vital importance for the political aims of uniting the Roman Empire. The contribution of the Roman grammarians were primarily of a utilitarian nature and represent the application in practice of some Greek principles of thought. In the field of grammatical theory, Marcus Terentius Varro (116-27 B.C.) resolved the antithesis of anomaly versus analogy by finding a place for both analogy and anomaly in grammar. For him language was a natural ability which had been subjected to cultural development [21].

形式語法的建立在羅馬時期變成了一種急切的需要。跟他們的希臘先驅不同的是，他們為了瞭解古典名著而對語言研究變得全神貫注，羅馬的作家需要規則才能書寫拉丁文的作品。除此之外，因為統一羅馬帝國的政治目的，拉丁文用法的標準化變得相當地重要。羅馬文法家的貢獻一開始是為了實用的特性以及將某些希臘思想原則實際地展現出來。在語法理論的領域裡，Marcus Terentius Varro (西元前116-27年)藉由尋得語法中類比與不規則的共存之地，解決了兩者的對立。對他來說，語言是附屬於文化發展下的自然能力[21]。

Lucretius (91-51 B.C.) revived and elaborated the Epicurean ideas when he described language as a physiological function based on an inherent human need to name things [22]. With practical political and social goals as the impetus behind most of the extensive work on language done by the Romans—including the scholarly writings of Caesar and Cicero—the question of the biological basis or origin of language did not enter the discussion [23].

當Lucretius(西元前91-51年)根據人類命名事物的天生需求，而將語言描述為一種生理功能時，同時也復甦了Epicurus的想法[22]。由於大部分羅馬人對語言所完成的廣泛研究（包含了Caesar與Cicero博學的著作）背後的那一股政治及社會目的的刺激，使得語言的生物基礎或起源此問題並未進入討論中[23]。

A very serious shortcoming of most Roman writers on language was the limitation of their discussions to Latin and Greek, which Steinthal regarded as the chief factor for their failure to formulate a more general language theory. In the writings of Gaius Plinius Secundus (23-79 A.D.) and of Strabo (63 B.C.-24 A.D.) only Greek and Latin are given serious consideration. One of the few to include other languages as well was the Epicurean Diogenes of Oinoanda (2nd century A.D.) who wrote that men created language everywhere quite naturally; it was not a conscious invention or the result of convention. No single man or god could have created it [24].

大部分書寫語言議題的羅馬作家都有一個非常嚴重的缺點，就是受限於拉丁文和希臘文的討論，Steinthal將其視為他們無法將更加普遍的語言理論公式化的主因。在Gaius Plinius Secundus (西元23-79年)及Strabo (西元前63年-西元24年)的著作裡，只有希臘文和拉丁文有相關的重要論述。少數幾個將其他語言也包含進去的其中一個是Epicurean Diogenes of Oinoanda (西元二世紀)，他寫道人類自然而然地到處發明語言；這並非是有意識的發明或風俗傳統的結果[24]。

4. The Greek word gramma referred to the knowledge of language sounds and signs; a grammatikos was originally a schoolmaster who taught reading and writing. A differentiation between a Kritikos as literary critic and the Grammatikos or Grammarian was made only in Roman times. H. Steinthal, op. cit., pp. 375,436

希臘文的gramma意指關於語言聲音與符號的知識；而grammatikos原本指的是教授閱讀與寫作的教師。只有在羅馬時代才將Kritikos和Grammatikos分作文學評論家與文法家。H. Steinthal, op. cit., pp. 375,436

5. From the discussion it is clear that many of the arguments had arisen from the failure in defining the word language. First it had been used synonymously with naming, or it was referred to the Greek language. At other times, man's specking capacity or the correct use of language were implied when language was discussed.

從這裡的討論可以清楚地知道，許多論述的出現是來自定義「語言」一詞的失敗經驗。「語言」一開始用作「命名」的同義詞，或是意指希臘語。其他時期裡，當提及「語言」的時候，則暗示了人類的言語能力或是語言的正確使用。

[17] _____. Pp. 377, 436.
[18] _____. P. 493.
[19] Lersch, Laurenz, Die Sprachphilosophie der Alten. Koenig, Bonn, 1838, pp. 43 et seq.
Steinthal, H., op. cit., p. 489.
[20] Lersch, L. op. cit., p. 12, 45.
Steinthal, H., op. cit., p. 504.
[21] Borst, A., op. cit., p. 154.
Lerrsch, L., op. cit., pp. 118 et seq., 126, 133 et seq.
Steinthal, H., op. cit., p.504 et seq., 677.
[22] Titus, Lucretius, De rerum Natura, 1027, 1055, 1086.
Borst, A., op. cit., p. 156.
Steinthal, H., op. cit., p. 197.
[23] Borst, A., op. cit., p. 156.
Lersch, L., op. cit., pp. 93, 140, 150, 179.
[24] Borst, A., pp. 164, 178.

paucity少數;少量;缺乏
predecessors 前任;前輩 / (被取代的)原有事物 /【古】祖先
preoccupied全神貫注的;入神的[(+with)] / 被搶先佔有的
utilitarian a. 功利主義的 / 功利的;實利的 / n. 功利主義者;實利主義者
antithesis 對立面;對立;對照;對偶 / (修辭學中的)對語,對句
Lucretitus
impetus 推動,促進;推動力;刺激[U][S1][(+to)][+to-v] / 衝力[U]

LB374,379 晟維

II. A CONCISE STATEMENT OF THE THEORY
(p.374)
(1) Language is the manifestation of species-specific cognitive propensities. It is the consequence of the biological peculiarities that make a human type of cognition possible.* The dependence of language upon human cognition is merely one instance of he general phenomenon characterized by premise (i) above. There is evidence (Chapter Seven and Eight) that cognitive function is a more basic and primary process than language, and that the dependence-relationship of language upon cognition is incomparably stronger than vice versa.

(1)語言是物種特定認知傾向的表現。生物獨特性的結果使得人種的認知變得可能。* 語言的獨立性之於人類認知，僅為上述的假設(i)所描述的普遍現象的一個例子。證據(第七章與第八章)顯示，認知的功能是比語言更基礎、更原始的過程，而語言之於認知的獨立關係更是天差地別地強過認知之於語言。

(2) The cognitive function underlying language consists of an adaptation of a ubiquitous process (among vertebrates) of categorization and extraction of similarities. The perception and production of language may be reduced on all levels to categorization processes, including the subsuming of narrow categories under more comprehensive ones and the subdivision of comprehensive categories into more specific ones. The extraction of similarities does not only operate upon physical stimuli but also upon categories of underlying structural schemata. Words label categorization processes (Chapter Seven and Eight).

(2)構成語言基礎的認知功能是由無所不在的分類過程之應用以及相似性的抽取所構成。語言的接收與產生可在各個階層簡化成分類過程，包括將狹隘的類別歸納到較廣泛的類別下，以及將廣泛的類別細分成較特定的類別。相似性的抽取不只在在物理性刺激上運作，也在底層結構組織類別上運作。文字標記著分類過程(第七章與第八章)。

(3) Certain specializations in peripheral anatomy and physiology account for some of the universal features of natural languages, but the descriptions of these human peculiarities does not constitute an explanation for the phylogenetic development of language. During the evolutionary history of the species form, function and behavior have interacted adaptively, but none of these aspects may be regarded as the "cause" of the other. Today, mastery of language by an individual may be accomplished despite severe peripheral anomalies, indicating that cerebral function is now the determining factor for language behavior as we know it in contemporary man. This, however, does not necessarily reflect the evolutionary sequence of developmental events.

(3) 周邊解剖學及生理學中的某些特化能夠解釋自然語言中的共同特性，但儘管將人類特質的種種描述聚集起來，仍然無法解釋語言系統化的發展。在物種演化歷史中，功能與行為相輔相成，但這些觀點都無法視為彼此的「因」。現今，儘管仍有許多明顯的表面不規則，但個體還是可以完整的掌握語言，這顯示了現代人大腦的功能是語言行為的決定性因素。然而，這並不一定能反映發展中事件的演化順序。

* It is true that statement introduces some profound problems in the theory of evolution, but our preoccupation with language should not oblique us to solve, at the same time, the general problems that affect all evolutionary phenomena. The emergence of celestial navigation in birds or the diving abilities of whales are no less mysterious than the emergence of a language-enabling cognition.

*某些陳述的確介紹了演化理論中的精深問題，但我們對語言的專注力不該只用來解決這些問題，還有那些影響演化現象的普遍問題。鳥類絕佳的領航技術或鯨魚潛水能力的展現，與賦予語言靈魂的認知能力，兩者同樣的神奇奧妙。

(p.379)
(13) Even though biological constitution of the individual is as essential replica of its progenitors, there are, naturally, individual variations.In fact, there are two distinct levels that are relevant to language: in the formation of the latent structure and in the actualization process from latent to realized structure. The former may be due to variations in the operation of cognitive processes or due to variations in the maturational course; the latter is primarily due to variations in peripheral function and structures such as the vocal tract of the ears. Variations on these two levels explain the main facts about language constancies, language change, and language universals.

(13) 儘管個體生物組成似乎是前代的複製品，但還是存在著自然而然的個體差異。事實上，與語言相關的層級有兩個：潛在的結構的形成，以及從潛在到外顯結構的實體化過程。前者也許取決於認知過程運轉中的變異，或是成熟化過程中的變異；而後者則主要因為周邊功能及結構的差異，如雙耳的聽道。這兩個層級上的變異解釋了語言恆定、語言改變、語言普遍性的主要狀況。

(vocabulary searching)
p.374
ubiquitous 到處存在的,普遍存在的
vertebrate(s) 脊椎動物 / a.有脊椎的;脊椎動物的
subsume 把...歸入,納入 / 把...包括在內,包含
subdivision 再分,細分[U] / (細分的)一部分,分支,分部[C] /【美】供出賣而分成的小塊土地[C]
phylogenetic系統發生的 / 動植物種類史的
anomaly 不規則;破格 /【天】近點角 / 反常(事物);異常(現象)
cerebral 大腦的 / 理智的;有智力的;用腦筋的
celestial a.天的,天空的天國的;神聖的,精妙的;極佳的 / (C-)天朝(指古時中國)的n. 神仙,天堂裡的居民[C] celetial bodies 天體

p.379
replica 複製品;複寫;酷似
progenitors人、動植物的)祖先【文】前輩,先驅,始祖 / (文件的)原本,正本

latent潛伏的,潛在的 /【植】休眠的,潛伏的 /【心】潛在的,隱性的
潛伏性病毒latent virus
actualization 實現

LBvii 晟維

Preface

(paragraph 2)

My intention was to write a theoretical treatise, not a textbook or a survey. I have made no attempt at exhaustive coverage of any of the many fields touched upon. For instance, in the field of physiology much outstanding work has been done on voice and speech mechanisms and on auditory perception. This material is clearly relevant to a general biology of language and certainly ought to be included in any course on this topic. I have omitted this and other similar material because it would not have added much to the main line of the argument, because it is readily available to the English-speaking reader, and because the technical detailed is difficult to follow if one does not possess prior knowledge of the subject. On the other hand, I did add some detailed discussions of modern biological experiments and theory on the assumption that the student of language is today more likely to come with a background in the social sciences than in biology, and he would, therefore, be unwilling to accept some of the claims made in this book unless they were presented together with the substrate from which they originated.

我的目的原是寫一個理論性論述，而非教科書或查證報告。我從未企圖完成接觸到的眾多領域裡任何一個領域的詳盡報導。例如，在生理學的領域裡，已有許多關於發音和言語機制與聽覺接收的傑出研究。由於這並不會對所討論的主軸多加著墨，我略去了這個部分及其他相似的資料，因為這個部分對英語讀者來說很容易取得，也因為如果讀者尚未取得進一步的相關知識，則一些技術上的細節會變得難以理解。另一方面，我附加了有關現代生物學實驗和理論的討論細節，由於我猜想現今研究語言的學生比較可能擁有社會科學的背景，而非生物學的背景，因此他們也許很難接受本書中的論說，除非他們見到這些論說起源的基礎。

腹語表演-Jeff Dunham

the mechanism may be easy to understand

but the skill takes a lifetime to develop

Stratificational Phonology

definitions form David Crystal, A Dictionary of Linguistics & Phonetics:
Stratificational grammar
A linguistic theory devised y the American linguist Sydney M. Lamb (b. 1929), as expounded initially in Outline of Stratificational Grammar (1962), which models language as a system of several related layers (or strata) of structure. Six strata are recognized for English and many other languages: the component of phonology comprises the hypophonemic (or phonetic) and phonemic strata; and semology comprises the sememic and hypersememic (or semantic) strata. Each stratum is organized in terms of a set of stratal systems, and each system deals with an aspect of linguistic structure which has to be stated independently of the structures operating at other strata. Two types of patterning are recognized: tactic analysis (the patternss of sequential arrangement within each stratum) and realizational analysis (the relationship between units operating at higher and lower levels between strata). A parallel terminology is used sememic/hypersememic’ system consisting of various structural patterns (e.g. ‘hypophonotactic/phonotactic’, etc.), defined in terms of ‘hypophonemes/phonemes’, etc., and realized as ‘hypophons/phons/morphos/lexons’,etc.

Stratificational Linguistics is a view of linguistics advocated by Sydney Lamb. His theories advocate that language usage and production is stratificational in nature.
Specifically, that there are separate 'strata' or levels in the brain used for language. Each level provides actualization or 'realization' for the next higher level, and the elements on its level are similar to each other. Several strata are involved in the production of a sound from an initial idea.
Some strata include:
Phoneme as the unit on the Phonemic strata.
Lexeme as a unit on the Lexical strata.
Morpheme as the unit on the Morphemic strata
Sememe as the unit on the Semantic strata.

(go to the page of FJU)

stratificational phonology in An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology

作者：John Clark, Colin Yallop, Janet Fletcher

stratificational phonology in A dictionary of Phonetics and Phonology

作者：Robert Lawrence Trask

土耳其文「脫落音」

土耳其文中「脫落音」現象

土耳其文中有某些單字在加上格位等其他文法標號時，其單字本身的最後一個母音會脫落。

Resim(圖畫) ＋ -im(所屬格「我的-」) → resim-im → resm-im(我的圖畫)
Metin(文章) ＋ -e(到格「根據-」) → metin-e → metn-e(根據文章)

about Kymograph

English phonetics-

vertical kymograph

vertical kymograph-AHAP

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Zur Geschichte des Instituts für Psychologie

The Experimentations continue!
-The Unofficial Manipal University Blog

土耳其文中「母音諧聲」

[所屬格]
土耳其文中的所屬格（genitive），是以固定的形式直接加在名詞之後，如：

el 手 （單數）
elim 我的手 el-im
elin 你的手 el-in
eli 他的手 el-i
elimiz 我們的手 el-imiz
eliniz 你們的手 el-iniz
elleri 他們的手 el-leri


但是所屬格的母音部分，會為了達到「諧聲」而隨著單字本身變化，如：

göz 眼睛（單數）
gözüm 我的眼睛 göz-üm
gözün 你的眼睛 göz-ün
gözü 他的眼睛 göz-ü
gözümüz 我們的眼睛 göz-ümüz
gözünüz 你們的眼睛 göz-ünüz
gözleri 他們的眼睛 göz-leri


所屬格中子音的部分完全沒有改變，但是母音的部分改變了。這樣的變化總共有四種，整理如下：

單子最後一個母音為： a 或 ı 則所屬格中的母音變為：ı
單子最後一個母音為： e 或 i 則所屬格中的母音變為：i
單子最後一個母音為： o 或 u 則所屬格中的母音變為：u
單子最後一個母音為： ö 或 ü 則所屬格中的母音變為：ü


範例：
top 球 top-um top-un top-u top-umuz top-unuz top-ları
diş 牙齒 diş-im diş-in diş-i diş-imiz diş-iniz diş-leri
çay 茶 çay-ım çay-ın çay-ı çay-ımız çay-ınız çay-ları

questions and sub-questions in phonology

The outline of the hierarchy of these 16 questions. (1.2.3. for my own questions, I, II, III, thus for those in the book, and the VIII is parted, into a,b, and c, as three questions.)

Important questions of phonology

(7) How do we define the border of phonology?

(2) What is the structure of sound system?
(I) How is language and its parts, including words and morphemes, represented in the mind of the speaker; how is this representation accessed and used? How can we account for the variation in the phonetic shape of these elements as a function of context and speaking style?
(V) How can the functions of speech be enhances and amplified, for example, to give permanency to ephemeral speech, to permit communication over great distances, and to permit communication with machines using speech?

(6) What is the formation of speech sound?
(VIII b) Why is the vocal apparatus different as a function of the age and sex of the speaker?
(II) How, physically and physiologically, does speech work—the phonetic mechanisms of speech production and perception, including the structures and units it is built on?

(5) How do we acquire/learn the meaning of sounds?
(VII) How is sound associated with meaning?
(VI) How is speech acquired as a first language and as a subsequent language?
(IV) How can we ameliorate communication disorders?

(3) How language change affects phonology?
(III) How and why does pronunciation change over time, thus giving rise to different dialects and languages, and different forms of the same word or morpheme in different context? How can we account for common patterns in diverse languages, such as segment inventories and phonotactics?
(VIII a&b) How did language and speech arise or evolve in our species? What is the relation, if any, between human speech and non-human communication?

(1) What is the current methodology for phonological research?

(8) What is sign language phonology about?

important questions in phonology for me

My 8 questions

1. What is the current methodes for phonological research?
2. What is sound system?
3. How does language change?
4. What are phonological features in language family?
5. How do we know the meaning of sounds?
6. What is the formation of speech sound?
7. How do we define the border of phonology?
8. What is sign language phonology?

How many overlappings between my questions and the questions listed on our textbook?
The overlappings are question2, 3, 5, 6

Part III

9.applying perceptual method to the study of phoetic variation and sound change

10.interpreting misperception

11.coarticulatory nasalization and phonological developments

12. A perceptual bridge between coronal and dorsal /r/

13.Danish Stød


CHAPTER 9 負責人：鎮妃、怡萱、勝芬

9.2.2 Testing perception of co-variationHypothese 1: - listeners formulate equivalence categories in which the two sites of a lowered velum, N and V(nasal), are perceptually equivalentHypothese 2: the range of variants of V(nasal) and N that listeners treat as perceptually equivaletn will differ depending on the voicing of the coda consonant9.2.2.1 Methodological approach1. co-varying acoustic properties- trading with each other is taken as evidence of th ecoherence among parts of the acoustic signal that belong together2. wavefrom-edeiting techniques (bed, bend, bet, bent)-three groups of pairsa. N-only pair: /n/ duration was the only difference between pair membersb. cooperating paris: the stimulus with the shorter /n/ had less vowel nasalization than did the stimulus with the longer /n/c. conflicting pairs: the stimulus with the shorter /n/ had more vowel nasalization than did the on with hte longer /n/9.2.2.2 predictions1. conflicting pairs, despite large acoustic differences between pair members, should be difficult to dscriminate--possibly more difficult than the acoustically less distinct N-only pairs2. cooperating pairs, whose member have large acoustic differences and alrge differences in total nasalization, should be correctly judged as different3. the expected influence of coda voicing is that the perceptual judgments of listeners will broadly reflect the distribution of V(nasal)N measures found for th eproduction of VNC(voiced) and VNC(voiceless) words, such that vowerl nasalization will have a greater influence on judgments in the voiceless than in the voiced context.9.2.2.3 Results(expected)1. discrimination was most accurate for coopearating pairs, whose members differd substantially in total nasalization across the V(nasal)N sequence(unexpected)2. listeners also showed the expected greater sensitvity to vowel nasalization in the [t] than in athe [d] context3. listeners who consistently discriminated the conflicting trials more poorly tha n the acoustically less distinfct N-only trials, and listeners whose overall accuracy on conflincting trials was similar to that on cooperating trials.4. nasa murmurs are more likely to be detected when followed by silence (the voiceless closure) than when followed by glottal pulsing (the voiced closure)5. Diffierent listeners have diffierent levels of respondence to the simuli

(勝芬↑)


It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with phonological change. (Discuss)This article does not cite any references or sources. (November 2006)Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed.Note: This page or section contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. See Help:IPA for a pronunciation key.Sound change includes any processes of language change that affect pronunciation (phonetic change) or word structures (phonemic change). Sound change can consist of the replacement of one speech sound (or, more generally, one phonetic feature) by another, the complete loss of the affected sound, and (rarely) even the introduction of a new sound in a place where there previously was none. Sound changes can be environmentally conditioned, meaning that the change in question only occurs in a defined sound environment, whereas in other environments the same speech sound is not affected by the change.Sound change is assumed to be usually regular, which means that it is expected to apply mechanically whenever its structural condition is met, irrespective of any non-phonological factors (such as the meaning of the words affected). On the other hand, sound changes can sometimes be sporadic, affecting only one particular word or a few words, without any seeming regularity.Of regular sound changes, the somewhat hyperbolic term sound law is also sometimes used. This term was introduced by the Neogrammarian school in the 19th century and is still commonly applied to some historically important sound changes, such as Grimm's law. While real-world sound changes often admit of exceptions (for a variety of known reasons, and sometimes without a known reason), the expectation of their regularity or "exceptionlessness" is of great heuristic value, since it allows historical linguists to define the notion of regular correspondence (see: comparative method).Each sound change is limited in space and time. It means it functions within a specified area (only in some dialects) and within a specified period of time. These limitations are some of the reasons for which some scholars refuse using the term "sound law" (asserting that laws should not have such spatial and temporal limitations) and replace it with phonetic rule.Contents1 The formal notation of sound change2 Principles of sound change3 Terms for changes in pronunciation4 Examples of specific historical sound changes5 External links

(怡萱↑)

CHAPTER 10 負責人：珮驊、義仁

Ohala has gave substance to Baudouin’s insighta. Misperception as a significant source of sound changeb. Investigation of the nature of such misperceptions by experimental methodsTwo fundamental implications of Ohala’s researcha. The innocent misperception can lead directly to attested recurrent sound patternsb. Sound change is non-teleologicalThe sources of the resistance to non-teleological modelsa. Experimental results are simply ignoredb. Interpretations of perception experiments are not empirically motivated, and fail to recognize lexical effectsc. Simplification of the model

(義仁↑)

CHAPTER 11 負責人：惠珍、怡君、晟維

11.1 IntroductionVowel-nasal-fricative nasalizationVelum movement during nasalizationSound changesNasal loss and preceding vowel lengtheningStop epenthesisThe unclear of nasal following voiceless fricativeVowel types do matter for the ease of nasalization11.2 previous investigations of nasal-obstruent sequences in Italian and EnglishVowel nasalizationIn Northern ItalianLong vowel durationVoiceless post-nasal consonants (fricative)Complete nasal consonant loss and longer vowel nasalization before fricatives than stops (Busà, 2003)In Central ItalianNo extensive nasalization nor complete nasal consonant lossIn American English80-100% nasalization, esp. the vowel before a tautosyllabic nasal and before a voiceless stopAE vowel nasalization is an intrinsic property of vowel rather than an coarticulation effectStop epenthesisReason of occurrence: when the oral constriction is released it causes a burst at the same place of articulation as the nasal consonantIn Central (-Southern) ItalianIn AE2 cases of stop epenthesisThe velum raising before the beginning of the oral constriction (for the fricative)The velum raising after the release for the fricativeFavored environments for occurrence: Word-final position and following a stressed vowel

(晟維↑)

11.3MethodPrevious findings between oral air emission for the production of oral sound and the extend of the closure of the VP opening.Positive correlation(Lubker and Moll 1995)Current method11.3.1 Speech materialTable 11.1 Words used in the experimentThe words are placed as in belowItalian: Dico X diEnglish: I said X againAnd read five times by each subject11.3.2 ProcedureOral and nasal flows were transduced bytwo-chamber Glottal Enterprise Rothenberg mask.Audio signal were recorded byA high-quality microphone attached to the exterior of the mask11.3.3 AnalysisFirst analyzed with PCquitier.Display of acoustic waveformSpectrogramOral and nasal flowWhen vowel is oral & nasal is fully articulatedWhen vowel is nasalized before a fully articulated nasal consonantWhen vowel is nasalized before a weakly articulated nasal consonantA fully nasalized vowels co-occurrence of nasal flow11.3.4 Measures11.3.4.1 Acoustic analysisDuration measures were taken ofthe test & control of Vsnasalized portions of pre-nasal Vs, Ns,Fs11.3.4.2 Nasal airflowDifference at the nasal onset and offsetFigure 11.2The interpretation of the nasal flow with the thresholds were label astN1, tN2, tN3, tN4,The peak time of nasal flow was labeled t Npeak, -tN, 11.3.4.3 Oral airflowOral movement with a piecewise linear envelopThe envelop was used to compute the time lagFrom the maximum of oral closure to the nasal peak11.3.4.5 Statistical analysisOne-way ANOVAsAcoustic dataTwo-ways ANOVAsWithin-groupBetween-groupBy averaging, by groupSame to aerodynamic dataAveraging values across VNF, and VNTS context11.4 Result11.4.1. Acoustic analysisFigure 1.1(left panel)Typical case in N1 dataThe vowel is heavily nasalizedThe nasal consonant is weakly articulated before the following voiceless fricativesFigure 1.1(right panel)The release ofthe oral occlusion for the nasal consonant between the velic closure(nasal peak)The result of the acoustic analysisTwo-ways ANOVAsTable 11.2-4As expectedThere is defect of vowel quality on vowel durationAnd the duration of vowel nasalizationTable 5N1 has the longest vowels and shortest oral consonants(F,TS) inVNFVNTS sequence

(惠珍↑)

CHAPTER 12 負責人：威鈴、伊津、宜珊
12.1 IntroductionPhonetic variation of rhotics /r/ in Swedish dialects:(1).front(coronal)/r/(2).back(dorsal)/r/Region of back /r/ :western EuropeanEnglishItalian CzechEstonianworking-class varieties of rural communitiesThe complementary distribution between [R] and [r] in southern Swedish dialects:/r/: back only in intitial postion , after a short stressed vowelFront and back /r/ have provided a basis for lexcal contrast in OccitanWhy would [r] change into [R] (or vice versa)?How does sound change begin?Purpose :(1)to establish an articulary-acoustic reference for /r/ types(2)to evaluate the articulatory-acoustic relationship(3)to synthesize an /r/ continuum situated in the F2-F3 area in question

(宜珊↑)


12.1Why would [r]change into [R] (or vice versa)How does sound change begin?Perception affects place of articulationPurpose---examine the perceptual preconditions for reinterpretation of place of articulation.Establish an articulatory-acoustic reference systemEvaluate the articulatory -aoustic relationshipsSynthesize an /r/ continuum

(伊津↑)


12.1 IntroductionThe rhotics (r-sounds) are known for having a particularly wide range of phonetic variationWhy would [r] change into [R]?How does sound change begin?The purposeTo examine the perceptual preconditions for reinterpretations of place of articulation1) Establish an articulatory-acoustic reference system for a number of /r/ types2) To evaluate the articulatory-acoustic relationships using articulatory modeling.3) To synthesize an /r/ continuum situated in the F2-F3 area in question.12.2 Formant Frequencies for places of /r/ articulation12.2.1 DataWe recorded reference material to obtain formant frequencies for various approximant rhotics12.2.2 CommentsThe pharyngeals, uvulars, and back velars form separate but adjacent clusters.12.3 APEX simulations12.3.1 The APEX model1) an implementation of a framework previously developed for vowels2)subsequently augmented with tongue tip and blade parameters3) APEX is a tool for going from articulatory positions to sound in four steps4) From specifications for lips, tongue lip, tongue body, jaw opening and larynx height, APEX constructs an articulatory profile.12.3.2 SimulationsAPEX was used to help answer two questionsWhat are the acoustic consequences of varying the place of articulation in /r/-like coronal articulations?What are the acoustic consequences of varying the place of articulation in /r/-like dorsal articulations?12.3.3 ConclusionsBy the large, it can be seen that APEX corroborates the articulatory properties exhibited by speaker O. It would therefore seen justified to assume that they are descriptively valid not only for him, but, at least qualitatively, also more generally.

(威鈴↑)

CHAPTER 13 負責人：Aleksandra 、洋吉


13.3 PHONOLOGICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF STØDAppearance of stød, where it did not belong originallyMozartProductiveness of stød13.3.1 Stød and word structureGeneral principles of stødStd vs non-stød13.3.1.1 Stød in non-inflected, non-derived words (lexical items)13.3.1.2 Inflection and derivationSuffixesFully productiveSemi-productiveNon-productiveDependency of stød13.3.2 Stød in new and unexpected contextsPrinciples of stød in the process of changeUnexpected examplesSimple nouns in the pluralCompound nouns in the pluralVerbal adjectivesNon-inflected lexical itemsNon-inflected compound stemsCONCLUSIONAim-acoustic & perceptual evidence on Danish stødCharacteristic of Danish stødPhonetic natureDistributionPrinciples of governing

(Aleksandra ↑)

psycholinguistic method

Bruce Derwing
He is Professor Emeritus in the Department of Linguistics at the University of Alberta (Edmonton, Canada). He was a pioneer in the development of non-chronometric psycholinguistic techniques for the cross-linguistic investigation of phonological units, involving languages as disparate as Arabic, Blackfoot, Korean, Minnan, and Swiss German. His current research focuses on the phonological and morphological aspects of the form, structure, and organization of the mental lexicon, with a special interest in the role of orthographic knowledge on the perceived segmentation of speech.

Nina Grønnum and Hans Basbøll
Nina Grønnum
She works at the Department of Nordic Studies and Linguistics, University of Copenhagen. She received her M.A. in phonetics in 1972, her Ph.D. in 1981 (Studies in Danish Intonation), and her Danish Doctorate in 1992 (The Groundworks of Danish Intonation). From 1972 to 1976 she was an Assistant Professor, between 1976 and 1993 she was an Associate Professor, and since 1993 she has been an Associate Professor with Special Qualifications. She is a Fellow of The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters.
Hans Basbøll
He is Professor of Scandinavian Linguistics at the Institute of Language and Communication, University of Southern Denmark. He has directed projects on Danish language acquisition. Among his recent publications is Phonology of Danish (2005, Oxford University Press). Hans Basbøll is a fellow of The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters.

Sieb Nooteboom and Hugo Quené
Sieb Nooteboom
He received his Ph.D. in 1972 from Utrecht University. He has had positions as Researcher in Philips Research in Eindhoven (1966-1988), part-time Professor of Phonetics in Leyden University (1980-1988), part-time Professor of Experimental Linguistics in Eindhoven Technical University (1986-1988), full-time Professor of Phonetics in Utrecht University (1988-2004), and part-time Professor of Phonetics in Utrecht University (2004-2006).
bibliography of Sieb G. Nooteboom
homepage of Sieb Nooteboom - Universiteit Utrecht

Hugo Quené
He received his Ph.D. from Utrecht University in 1989. He has held positions as Research Scientist in Utrecht University (1986-1989), Assistant Professor of Phonetics at Leyden University (1989-1990), Assistant Professor of Phonetics (1989-2004), and Associate Professor of Phonetics at Utrecht (2004- ). He was Fulbright Visiting Scolar at Indiana University, Bloomington, in 2001 and 2002.

Manjari Ohala
She received her Ph.D. from UCLA in 1972. She is now Professor, and Currently Chair, of the Department of Linguistics and Language Development at San Jose State University, where she was taught since 1974. She has also taught at University of Maryland (Linguistic Society of America Summer Institute), UC Davis, UC Berkeley, and the University of Alberta, Edmonton. Her research interests in phonetics and phonology include experimental phonology and the phonetics and phonology of Indo-Aryan languages. She is the author of numerous articles on Hindi phonetics and phonology, and Aspects of Hindi Phonology (1983, Motilal Banarsidass).

Danny D. Steinberg, Psycholinguistics: Language, Mind, and World

MPG (Max Planck Gesellschaft)

Speech Prosody 2002